Reconstruction, 1865
1) Led by radical republicans and former abolitionists
i) 13th amendment passes (abolish slavery), 14th amendment (guarantee equal treatment under law), and 15th amendment (voting for black males)
(1) Blacks become overwhelmingly republican
Reconstructions ended with Compromise of 1877
Age of Segregation (1880s-1910s)
1) Lynching – racist whites torture and kill blacks
i) Occurred publicly, police would not arrest anyone
(1) Southern political system is assumed to approve
(2) Person lynched was usually said to be a rapist (displays gender idea that men must protect their white women)
ii) Used to intimidate black community
(1) Senators and newspapers encouraged lynching
2) Politics – excluded blacks from legitimate voting using:
i) Violence – literally scare them away from polls
ii) Local laws (fair rules, unfairly implemented) such as:
(1) Poll tax
(2) Literacy test
(a) Example of effectiveness – House of Representatives in 1874 had 8 blacks, in 1880 had 2, and by 1890 had 0, not another until 1974 (1)
3) Sharecropping – widespread system
i) Whites owned land, blacks farmed it in exchange for a portion of the profits from sale
ii) Women (black) confined to working domestic areas
4) Segregated laws (in schools, etc.)
i) Brown v Board of Education
(1) Not ruled until 1954
ii) Plessy v Ferguson
(1) Established “separate but equal”
iii) De facto norms/customs
(1) Treated as law by police
5) “White” Christianity – moralized white actions
i) Bible Belt
(1) Displayed popular belief that others imitated them (the “greatest” Christians)
6) Science showed that whites had evolved further than nonwhites
7) Historians of the time write that:
i) Slavery was an easy, fair system, bereft of genocide and maltreatment because the master desired good health
ii) Reconstruction was a “Tragic Era” because blacks were put on a higher pedestal then they were capable of achieving
iii) Compromise of 1877 ended the “tragic era”
(1) Prevented another civil war, removed republican troops from the south, gave democrats some political seats in exchange for allowing Hays to be president, called for legislation to industrialize the south (didn’t happen until 1930s), and ended formal help for blacks from the federal government until 1950s
8) Confederate Heroes Day
Resistance to White Supremacy
1) Black family is more secure
a) Now illegal to be sold
i) Self-esteem and love become nurtured
b) Family is allowed to choose a last name
2) Black Christianity (Baptist, Methodist, non-traditional)
a) Teachings include:
i) Racism is wrong
ii) Avoidance of factual white prejudice
iii) Focus on spirituality
(1) Spiritual songs, unwritten, are popularized by Jubilee Singers
(a) Widen audience by touring the country
3) Elementary (Grammar) school
a) Gives sense of progress to second generation blacks
b) Fisk University in Nashville was funded by Northern whites
4) Potential for upper class mobility
a) Many institutions ignored blacks, thus leaving a gap for entrepreneurs to fill
i) Example: insurance agencies refused coverage to blacks (who were mostly sharecroppers)
5) Booker T. Washington (nice, charming, Victorian manners)
a) Founds Tuskegee Institute in Alabama
i) Vocational school with emphasis on manners and making money
ii) Funded by northern whites
iii) Made racists whites believe that he was creating a better, modern slave
(1) Alumni founded similar schools across the U.S.
iv) George Washington Carver was a professor at the TI
(1) Believed that the peanut market (and other original ideas) were the key to black fiscal freedom
6) W.E.B. DuBois attended Fisk, and then graduated with a PHD from Harvard
a) Writes Souls of Black Folk
i) Key to black freedom is combining white western culture with black African culture to create a new black/white foundation
b) Founds NAACP with help from whites
i) Submits writings (editorials, etc.)
ii) Files court cases (mostly loses)
c) Criticized Booker T. Washington as a soft tool
i) BTW criticizes WEB as a dreamer/idealist discouraged people at Tuskegee (and other branches) to not join the NAACP
7) Henry McNeal Turner – elected during reconstruction, cheated out of office after reconstruction; is also a minister in regular church
a) Gives up on America
i) Tells black to go to Africa and establish a free/independent nation under God (and black Jesus)
ii) Wants blacks to know that they have a place to go as a last resort (Africa)
b) Denounced by both BTW and WEB
8) Ida Wells – challenged lynching
a) “Black men don’t lust for white women”
b) “The real rapists are white men, stealing black women and girls”
c) “Lynches target innocent black men”
Industrial Revolution and the Economy, 1865-1900
1) Railroad
a) Development of coal burning engine (versus fire)
i) Faster, carries more cars and freight
b) New brakes (versus handbrake)
c) Track
i) All the way to Pacific Ocean
(1) Eliminates need for Oregon Trail and Pony Express
(a) Creates feeling of new generation – different from ancestors
ii) Standard width (allowed for universal cars/expansion)
d) Time zones created (East, Central, Mountains, Pacific)
e) Farming
i) Farmers could sell to other parts of state/other states
f) Mail order business
i) Montgomery Ward and Sears
(1) Expanded business to a national level by using RR and catalogs
g) The West
i) Cattle ranchers able to transport meat to the East
ii) Meatpackers (out of Chicago)
(1) Gus Swift
(2) Philip Armour
(3) 16M cattle slaughtered in one year in one place
2) New products
a) Steel
b) Skyscrapers
c) Elevators
d) Kerosene oil (versus whale oil)
e) Telephone
f) Electric light bulb
g) Camera for consumers (Kodak)
h) Typewriter
3) Finance
a) Stock market (headquartered at Wall Street)
b) J.P. Morgan
i) Buy stock/build/merge
ii) Anti-competition
4) Class structure
i) Upper class – Urban, northerners, WASP
(1) Old wealth (rich before CW)
(a) Wealth achieved from agriculture
(2) New wealth (move in to the upper class from a lower class – because of industrial revolution)
(a) John D. Rockefeller
(b) Andrew Carnegie
b) Middle class – urban/rural
i) Victorian beliefs/values
(1) Restraint/dignity/formality
(2) Imitate upper class manners (cleanliness)
c) Working class – urban, weekly wage pay
i) Native working Americans and immigrants
ii) Migrated from rural to city for work
iii) Skilled and unskilled workers
iv) Positives of working class
(1) Wages are higher than most places in the world (Europe)
(2) No shortage of jobs (for most)
(3) Possibility of upward mobility was high (because of inventions)
(4) Horatio Alger
(a) Rags to riches stories – believed by most to be possible
v) Negatives
(1) 12 hour days, no vacation or holiday, 6 day weeks
(2) Widening gap in distribution of wealth
(3) Slumps caused mass layoffs with no compensation
(4) No child labor laws
(a) Children forced to quit school to help support family because of low wages
(i) Difficult to be successful without a basic education
(ii) Constant possibility of injury/sickness/death
vi) Strikes
(1) Great Railroad Strike
(2) Homestead
(3) Pullman Strike
(a) All failed
(i) Strike breakers
1. African Americans/new immigrants replace strikers
(ii) Courts
1. Issue injunctions
a. Prohibit strikers from rallying/marching/protesting
(iii) Company guards
1. Armed forces to intimidate workers/beat them up
(iv) Police/Army used violence/intimidation to break strikes
(v) Newspapers (run by big business) portray dissenters as blood mongers
(vi) Deep divisions keep strikers/workers (skilled v unskilled) from uniting
d) Lower classes (nonwhites) – northern, urban, religious
5) Science
a) Charles Lyell – geologist
i) Proves that the earth is billions of years old (not 4004)
b) Charles Darwin – Origin of Species
i) Natural selection shows that species evolve, not just change traits
c) Social gospel and modernist accept this “new” science
i) Bible exists to teach ethics, never science
6) Religion Norms
a) Federal council of churches
i) Ecumenical
(1) Work together to further Christianity
(a) Federal Council of Churches
b) Interpretation of God/Jesus as nice and friendly
c) Human nature is optimistic, basically good
i) Ethics improve
d) Worship services display Victorian values (restraint, formal, rational)
i) Sermon is main part of church
(1) Requires silence and attention
e) Salvation is a gradual/easy process
f) Hymns explain and reinforce the gospel
g) Higher Criticism – group that uncovers flaws in the bible
i) Ethics remain the same
h) Protestant represents majority of people
i) Dislike Pope
ii) Sermons and hymns in English
iii) Government
(1) “City on a hill”
(a) Protestants thought the rest of the world would look to US
(2) Separation of church and state
(a) But government should support protestant ideas
iv) Missionaries
(1) Student Volunteer Movement
(a) John Mott
(i) Led 1000’s of young missionaries abroad to convert people
(ii) Intentionally spread imperialist ideas
1. Make other countries more American, possibly “as good”
v) Gender roles
(1) Men as leaders
(2) Celibacy is stupid
7) Protestant fundamentalists
a) Name comes from the publication and popularity of two 1910s long pamphlets/short books called “The Fundamentals”
b) Premillennialist similarities
i) God is a real person
(1) Viewed as judging and angry
ii) Only 1 way to heaven, through Jesus Christ
iii) Literalist interpretation of bible
(1) Reject higher criticism
(a) Reject scientists such as Lyell and Darwin
iv) Worship service
(1) Focus on individual and salvation
v) “Born agains”
(1) Instant, drastic changes in character
vi) Evangelicals
(1) Actively try and recruit new members
vii) Moral code
(1) Strict
(a) No alcohol, dancing, gambling, vaudeville
(b) Comes from idea that followers should be always worshiping, reading the bible, being evangelicals, focusing on religious thought
(i) Feared that most Americans were going to hell
viii) Politics
(1) Conservatives
ix) Non-ecumenical
c) Premillenialist differences from norms
i) Very negative outlook on world
ii) The bible
(1) Prophecy is about today
(a) Signs
(i) End of the world
1. Rapture – instantaneous transportation of good Christians to heaven
2. Antichrist – persecute new Christians left behind
3. Apocalypse – massive war
a. Causes Armageddon
i. Jesus returns to earth to fight the antichrist
4. The Millennium – Jesus beats the devil and everything is great
iii) Premillinialist leaders
(1) John Nelson Darby -- Englishman
(2) Cyrus Scofield – American reverend
(a) Scofield Reference Bible – normal bible which explains the meaning of verses and why Premillennialism is right
(b) Dallas theological seminary (for Premillennialists)
(i) Creates active evangelists
d) Pentecostal differences from norms
i) Positive outlook on world
ii) Emphasis on holy spirit
(1) Worship service requires charged emotions and active participation
(2) Speaking in tongues (requires two people)
(a) 1 – mystic speaker of foreign tongues
(b) 2 – translator to convert message back to English
(3) Faith healings
(a) God can cure all problems
iii) Grassroots start at Azusa Street mission (small church in Los Angeles)
(1) Membership is mostly lower/working class
(2) Biracial/bigender leaders/membership
iv) Form new churches and denominations
(1) Assembly of god
(a) Mostly white
(2) Church of god in Christ
(a) Mostly black
(3) Most churches stay independent
(a) Aimee Semple McPherson, 1920s
(i) Very famous person, easily simplified Pentecostal ideas
e) 3rd group differences
i) The bible
(1) No Premillinialist belief in signs or quick end of the world
(2) No Pentecostal speaking in tongues or faith healing
ii) Denominations
(1) Southern Baptist
(2) Presbyterian
(3) Independent
iii) Leaders
(1) Dwight Moody
(a) Uses many hymns/songs to promote religion
(2) Billy Sunday
(a) Showman, very dramatic, informal
(3) William Jennings Bryan – politician (progressive)
(a) Helped convict Scopes in 1920s
(i) Scopes trial – Scopes is arrested in Tennessee for teaching evolution
(ii) H.L. Menchen – journalist, came to fight Bryan and fundamentalists
1. Scopes is convicted, but fundamentalists are left feeling alienated because of the negative media attention
8) Nonconformist, new, smaller denominations
a) All begin in US
i) Representative of parts of American culture
b) Mormons (Latter Day Saints)
i) Pre civil war
(1) Joseph Smith
(a) Discovered Book of Mormon
(i) Written by people who saw Jesus while he was travelling North America
(ii) Mormons can (and do) baptize dead people
(b) Smith is killed because protestants disagree with his religion
(2) Brigham Young
(a) Leads Mormons to the west
(i) “Utah” territory
(ii) Tells followers that religious polygamy is good
ii) Post civil war
(1) Morrill Act – declares polygamy illegal is super illegal
(a) Reynolds (Mormon) v US
(i) Illegal to practice polygamy, not to believe it
(ii) Loses this appeal
1. Mormon leaders are arrested
(b) Symbolic value of reconstruction Morrill act
(i) One moral code is necessary for a nation
(2) Young dies
(a) New leader ends practice of polygamy
(i) Utah is allowed to become a state (1896)
c) Seventh Day Adventists
i) Founded by Ellen Gould White
ii) Declares that all other religions are wrong because they worship on Sunday (not 12 PM Friday night)
iii) Apocalypse is very soon
(1) Good Christians eat only what God has created
iv) Move church to Battle Creek, MI
(1) Establish the Sanitarium
(a) John Kellogg
(i) Doctor/believer
(ii) Creates corn flakes to help with mandated dietary changes
(iii) Disagrees a little bit with White and leaves sanatorium
1. Symbolic value is that you either follow doctrine 100% or leave
d) Christian science
i) Founded by Mary Baker Eddy
ii) God is a spirit
(1) Man is made in god’s image
(a) Thus people are spirits
(i) We are not actually matter
(ii) Medicine is not necessary because it only effects matter
1. The cure for disease/problems is spiritual help
iii) Conclusions
(1) Politically conservative
(2) Membership was mostly middle/upper class professionals
9) Modernist religious groups – merge religion with government and capitalism
a) Social Darwinism
i) Held Christian ethics (no murder, theft, etc.)
ii) Philanthropists when donations were not taxed
(1) Opposed government help
(2) People should not be able live off donations or be constantly help
iii) 1870-1900 – political conservatives
(1) Believed the job of government was to help economy, especially big business
(a) Followers of the “Trickle Down” wealth theory
(b) Laissez-faire approach to income tax and trust regulation
(c) Should be very active with conquest of Indians, grant land to RRs, create high tariffs, anti-union, and support imperialism (ex. Panama Canal)
iv) Leaders
(1) William Graham Sumner – “Alternative to social Darwinism is ‘unfit equality’”
(2) Henry Ward Beecher – preacher, “Poverty is because of sin”
(3) Russel Conwell – Acres of Diamonds, “Stay where you are and work, because there is nothing around the corner, and no get-rich-quick schemes”
b) Social Gospel – working condition between classes is unequal
i) Competition is selfish/unchristian
(1) Cooperation is the answer
ii) Politics
(1) Progressive, success during 1901-1920 with election of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson
(a) Supported anti-trust, pure food and drug act, environmental protection (national parks/forests), unions/strikes, and compromise
iii) Leaders
(1) Washington Gladden
(a) Christian leader who pushed to abolish slavery and establish welfare
(2) Charles Sheldon
(a) What Would Jesus Do, answer: reform
c) Politics
i) Reject social gospel (very conservative), society is seen as unimportant (Jesus awaits)
ii) Populist party
(1) Challenged big business on religious basis (didn’t last)
d) Fundamentalist – northern
i) Believed in signs, faith healing, tongues, and a quick end of the world
Gender Norms in 19th – early 20th century
1) Traditional concept of “separate spheres”
a) Men and women are different biologically and mentally (permanent)
i) Men
(1) More logical, rational, capable of good decisions
ii) Women
(1) Less everything, and scatter-brained
b) Marriage vows included women “obeying” their husband (not reciprocal)
c) Dancing
d) Christianity
i) All male figures
(1) God, Jesus, etc.
e) Fashion
i) Women
(1) Long dresses, fancy hats, girdles, etc., for purpose of modesty
ii) Men
(1) Pants, etc., for practical uses
2) Strengthens in late 19th century
a) Urban/industrial shift
i) Women no longer have regular contact with husband, very little with men in general
b) Evolution and social Darwinism
i) Men are strong/workers and possess valuable inherent traits
(1) All good traits come from men
ii) Women are weak, need to be taken care of, no values, basically exist to have babies
c) Sexuality
i) Courtship (instead of dating)
(1) Men require a constant chaperone because their sexuality needs to be regulated
(a) Without guidelines it was believed they would rape every woman they see
(2) Led to “romantic marriages” based on choice
(a) After marriage, traditional gender roles (subservient woman and sexually deviant man) were expected to continue
d) Government’s role
i) Anthony Comstock
(1) Comstock Law – created and later hired by the government to enforce it
(a) Outlaws everything “obscene”
(i) Porn, birth control, abortion, etc.
e) Women’s role – only domestic
i) Men can’t live without women (need them)
ii) Having 3-10 kids and raising them
(1) Teach daughters
(2) At-home births
(a) High risk of infection/death
iii) Food, clothes, cleaning, home made medicine
(1) Able to sell extra things (cakes, shirts, etc.)
3) Expanding opportunities for women
a) Private colleges open in the late 19th century, open only to women (middle/upper class)
i) Vassar (1861) – 1st women college
b) Jane Addams – establishes first settlement house
i) Hull House (not built for living) in Chicago
(1) Community Center that taught English, culture, political activities, etc.
(2) For immigrants to come together and reform
(a) Successful in teaching/advancing people
ii) Middle class woman
(1) House funded by her middle/upper class friends
iii) Reformer/activist
iv) Traditionally feminine
(1) Cared for people “lower” than her
c) Florence Kelley – founds National Consumers League (NCL)
i) Threatened to boycott business if they were abusing/overworking women/children
(1) Women were largest consumers (so they held a lot of power in this realm)
ii) Muller v. Oregon
(1) Oregon passed a law that forbade women from working more than 10 hours a day
(2) Muller, a businessman, fights the law
(a) Goes to supreme court
(b) Louis Brandeis is appointed by the NCL to defend Oregon (win)
d) Temperance/prohibition
i) Pre CW
(1) Small issue/fails
ii) Post CW
(1) Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) – led by Frances Willard
(a) Biggest national group
(b) Felt they were defending the home
(i) “Drys” said men spent too much time at the saloons, not enough at home
1. Saloons were a place for whores, liquor, gambling, and fighting
(c) Mostly social gospelites (protestants and political progressives)
(i) Drys thought they were good Christians because of these political ambitions (vote for prohibition is a vote for god)
(d) Critics
(i) The “wets”
1. Businessmen, thought that people had the right to drink (free will)
2. Drys are mixing church and state (against constitution)
3. Drys are too emotional (typical women characteristics)
(2) Failed through 19th century
(3) Post 19th century
(a) Carry Nation
(i) Walks into saloons and smashes liquor bottles/barrels with a hatchet
1. Gets arrested and is proud of it
(b) 1910s mark a turning point
(i) Prohibition separated from religious movement
(ii) Successful/growing progressive movement
(iii) WWI
1. Anti-German hysteria
a. Lots of breweries/brew masters from Germany
2. Idea that American soldiers need to be sober
(iv) Led to the passing of the 18th amendment (prohibition) in 1919
e) Suffrage
i) Pre CW
(1) Leaders
(a) Susan B. Anthony
(b) Elizabeth Cady Stanton
(i) Create Women’s Bible
1. Causes disagreement with religious people and within suffrage groups
2. Bible is flawed
a. Sexist things were just thrown in by men
3. Bible with anti-literalist/pro-suffrage annotations
a. We are all created in god’s image, thus equal rights are his will
(2) Movement fails
ii) 1910s (turning point)
(1) Leaders – all upper class women
(a) Carrie Chapman Catt
(i) Presents suffrage as conservative, moderate, non-radical reform
(ii) Progressive movement dictates women be allowed to vote
(b) Alice Paul
(i) Militant suffrage – protested White House
(2) 1920 – suffrage passed
(a) Suffrage still synonymous with social gospel and prohibition
(b) Disagreed with and not enforced in the south
f) Female workers
i) Primarily garment workers
(1) Based in NYC
(2) Mostly young girls and immigrants
(3) Unions had no interest in recruiting them (women)
(4) Rose Schneiderman
(a) Organize strikes/unions
(b) Success due to Triangle Shirt Waist Fire
4) Muscular Christianity
a) Women displayed god/Jesus in the wrong way (feminine and soft)
b) Leader
i) Billy Sunday
ii) YMCA (newly created)
(1) Combined sports and athleticism with religion (only for men)
5) Automobile – becomes popular in the 1910s
a) Enforced gender stereotypes because only men were allowed to drive (superior skill)
6) Margaret Sanger
a) Set up a clinic that advocated contraceptives (arrested)
Immigration
1) Chronology
a) Pre CW
i) Irish Catholic, German Jew, Chinese
b) Post CW
i) Eastern European Jew, Italian, Greek, Japanese
2) Statue of Liberty (1886)
a) Ellis Island (1892)
i) Center for immigration processing
3) Immigrant Movements
a) Immigrants go all over the world
i) 55% come to U.S.
(1) Some travel West
(2) Some stay in the Eastern big cities (tenements)
(3) None travel South because of the existing cheap labor force
4) Reasons for Immigrating
a) Large working class (no shortage of jobs)
b) Easy to become a citizen
i) Most of Europe is still ruled by monarchies, etc.
(1) No citizen participation
ii) Asians not allowed to become citizens
c) Escape hardship
5) Ethnic Identification – inherent, alterable, called race (implies genetics)
a) Mutual aid organizations
i) Helped one particular race
(1) Saw themselves as different/unique peoples lacking shared characteristics with other groups
b) Immigrants adopted “white” status because of the associated class
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