Reconstruction, 1865
1) Led by radical republicans and former abolitionists
i) 13th amendment passes (abolish slavery), 14th amendment (guarantee equal treatment under law), and 15th amendment (voting for black males)
(1) Blacks become overwhelmingly republican
Reconstructions ended with Compromise of 1877
Age of Segregation (1880s-1910s)
1) Lynching – racist whites torture and kill blacks
i) Occurred publicly, police would not arrest anyone
(1) Southern political system is assumed to approve
(2) Person lynched was usually said to be a rapist (displays gender idea that men must protect their white women)
ii) Used to intimidate black community
(1) Senators and newspapers encouraged lynching
2) Politics – excluded blacks from legitimate voting using:
i) Violence – literally scare them away from polls
ii) Local laws (fair rules, unfairly implemented) such as:
(1) Poll tax
(2) Literacy test
(a) Example of effectiveness – House of Representatives in 1874 had 8 blacks, in 1880 had 2, and by 1890 had 0, not another until 1974 (1)
3) Sharecropping – widespread system
i) Whites owned land, blacks farmed it in exchange for a portion of the profits from sale
ii) Women (black) confined to working domestic areas
4) Segregated laws (in schools, etc.)
i) Brown v Board of Education
(1) Not ruled until 1954
ii) Plessy v Ferguson
(1) Established “separate but equal”
iii) De facto norms/customs
(1) Treated as law by police
5) “White” Christianity – moralized white actions
i) Bible Belt
(1) Displayed popular belief that others imitated them (the “greatest” Christians)
6) Science showed that whites had evolved further than nonwhites
7) Historians of the time write that:
i) Slavery was an easy, fair system, bereft of genocide and maltreatment because the master desired good health
ii) Reconstruction was a “Tragic Era” because blacks were put on a higher pedestal then they were capable of achieving
iii) Compromise of 1877 ended the “tragic era”
(1) Prevented another civil war, removed republican troops from the south, gave democrats some political seats in exchange for allowing Hays to be president, called for legislation to industrialize the south (didn’t happen until 1930s), and ended formal help for blacks from the federal government until 1950s
8) Confederate Heroes Day
Resistance to White Supremacy
1) Black family is more secure
a) Now illegal to be sold
i) Self-esteem and love become nurtured
b) Family is allowed to choose a last name
2) Black Christianity (Baptist, Methodist, non-traditional)
a) Teachings include:
i) Racism is wrong
ii) Avoidance of factual white prejudice
iii) Focus on spirituality
(1) Spiritual songs, unwritten, are popularized by Jubilee Singers
(a) Widen audience by touring the country
3) Elementary (Grammar) school
a) Gives sense of progress to second generation blacks
b) Fisk University in Nashville
4) Potential for upper class mobility
a) Many institutions ignored blacks, thus leaving a gap for entrepreneurs to fill
i) Example: insurance agencies refused coverage to blacks (who were mostly sharecroppers)
5) Booker T. Washington (nice, charming, Victorian manners)
a) Founds Tuskegee Institute in Alabama
i) Vocational school with emphasis on manners and making money
ii) Funded by northern whites
iii) Made racists whites believe that he was creating a better, modern slave
(1) Alumni founded similar schools across the U.S.
iv) George Washington Carver was a professor at the TI
(1) Believed that the peanut market (and other original ideas) were the key to black fiscal freedom
6) W.E.B. DuBois attended Fisk, and then graduated with a PHD from Harvard
a) Writes Souls of Black Folk
i) Key to black freedom is combining white western culture with black African culture to create a new black/white foundation
b) Founds NAACP with help from whites
i) Submits writings (editorials, etc.)
ii) Files court cases (mostly loses)
c) Criticized Booker T. Washington
i) BTW criticizes WEB as a dreamer/idealist discouraged people at Tuskegee
7) Henry McNeal Turner – elected during reconstruction, cheated out of office after reconstruction; is also a minister in regular church
a) Gives up on America
i) Tells black to go to Africa and establish a free/independent nation under God (and black Jesus)
ii) Wants blacks to know that they have a place to go as a last resort (Africa )
b) Denounced by both BTW and WEB
8) Ida Wells – challenged lynching
a) “Black men don’t lust for white women”
b) “The real rapists are white men, stealing black women and girls”
c) “Lynches target innocent black men”
Industrial Revolution and the Economy, 1865-1900
1) Railroad
a) Development of coal burning engine (versus fire)
i) Faster, carries more cars and freight
b) New brakes (versus handbrake)
c) Track
i) All the way to Pacific Ocean
(1) Eliminates need for Oregon Trail and Pony Express
(a) Creates feeling of new generation – different from ancestors
ii) Standard width (allowed for universal cars/expansion)
d) Time zones created (East, Central, Mountains, Pacific)
e) Farming
i) Farmers could sell to other parts of state/other states
f) Mail order business
i) Montgomery Ward and Sears
(1) Expanded business to a national level by using RR and catalogs
g) The West
i) Cattle ranchers able to transport meat to the East
ii) Meatpackers (out of Chicago)
(1) Gus Swift
(2) Philip Armour
(3) 16M cattle slaughtered in one year in one place
2) New products
a) Steel
b) Skyscrapers
c) Elevators
d) Kerosene oil (versus whale oil)
e) Telephone
f) Electric light bulb
g) Camera for consumers (Kodak)
h) Typewriter
3) Finance
a) Stock market (headquartered at Wall Street)
b) J.P. Morgan
i) Buy stock/build/merge
ii) Anti-competition
4) Class structure
i) Upper class – Urban, northerners, WASP
(1) Old wealth (rich before CW)
(a) Wealth achieved from agriculture
(2) New wealth (move in to the upper class from a lower class – because of industrial revolution)
(a) John D. Rockefeller
(b) Andrew Carnegie
b) Middle class – urban/rural
i) Victorian beliefs/values
(1) Restraint/dignity/formality
(2) Imitate upper class manners (cleanliness)
c) Working class – urban, weekly wage pay
i) Native working Americans and immigrants
ii) Migrated from rural to city for work
iii) Skilled and unskilled workers
iv) Positives of working class
(1) Wages are higher than most places in the world (Europe)
(2) No shortage of jobs (for most)
(3) Possibility of upward mobility was high (because of inventions)
(4) Horatio Alger
(a) Rags to riches stories – believed by most to be possible
v) Negatives
(1) 12 hour days, no vacation or holiday, 6 day weeks
(2) Widening gap in distribution of wealth
(3) Slumps caused mass layoffs with no compensation
(4) No child labor laws
(a) Children forced to quit school to help support family because of low wages
(i) Difficult to be successful without a basic education
(ii) Constant possibility of injury/sickness/death
vi) Strikes
(1) Great Railroad Strike
(2) Homestead
(3) Pullman Strike
(a) All failed
(i) Strike breakers
1. African Americans/new immigrants replace strikers
(ii) Courts
1. Issue injunctions
a. Prohibit strikers from rallying/marching/protesting
(iii) Company guards
1. Armed forces to intimidate workers/beat them up
(iv) Police/Army used violence/intimidation to break strikes
(v) Newspapers (run by big business) portray dissenters as blood mongers
(vi) Deep divisions keep strikers/workers (skilled v unskilled) from uniting
d) Lower classes (nonwhites) – northern, urban, religious
5) 8 hour day effort – marks societal idea (new) that work does no define character
a) Anarchist rally at Haymarket Square, NYC
i) Speeches and then bomb
(1) Police open fire
b) 1880s-1900 divided working class causes unsuccessful strikes
c) Big business controlled government because of campaign contributions
i) Able to keep out unions and foil successful movement
d) Efforts fail
6) Religion
a) Ecumenical
i) Work together to further Christianity
(1) Federal Council of Churches
b) Interpretation of God/Jesus as nice and friendly
c) Human nature is optimistic, basically good
i) Ethics improve
d) Worship services display Victorian values (restraint, formal, rational)
i) Sermon is main part of church
(1) Requires silence and attention
e) Salvation is a gradual/easy process
f) Hymns explain and reinforce the gospel
g) Higher Criticism – group that uncovers flaws in the bible
i) Ethics remain the same
7) Science
a) Charles Lyell – geologist
i) Proves that the earth is billions of years old (not 4004)
b) Charles Darwin – Origin of Species
i) Natural selection shows that species evolve, not just change traits
c) Social gospel and modernist accept this “new” science
i) Bible exists to teach ethics, never science
8) Modernist religious groups – merge religion with government and capitalism
a) Social Darwinism
i) Held Christian ethics (no murder, theft, etc.)
ii) Philanthropists when donations were not taxed
(1) Opposed government help
(2) People should not be able live off donations or be constantly help
iii) 1870-1900 – political conservatives
(1) Believed the job of government was to help economy, especially big business
(a) Followers of the “Trickle Down” wealth theory
(b) Laissez-faire approach to income tax and trust regulation
(c) Should be very active with conquest of Indians, grant land to RRs, create high tariffs, anti-union, and support imperialism (ex. Panama Canal )
iv) Leaders
(1) William Graham Sumner – “Alternative to social Darwinism is ‘unfit equality’”
(2) Henry Ward Beecher – preacher, “Poverty is because of sin”
(3) Russel Conwell – Acres of Diamonds, “Stay where you are and work, because there is nothing around the corner, and no get-rich-quick schemes”
b) Social Gospel – working condition between classes is unequal
i) Competition is selfish/unchristian
(1) Cooperation is the answer
ii) Politics
(1) Progressive, success during 1901-1920 with election of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson
(a) Supported anti-trust, pure food and drug act, environmental protection (national parks/forests), unions/strikes, and compromise
iii) Leaders
(1) Washington
(a) Christian leader who pushed to abolish slavery and establish welfare
(2) Charles Sheldon
(a) What Would Jesus Do, answer: reform
9) Literalist interpretations of the Bible – Religions that reject Higher Criticism and evolution
a) Worship services focus on salvation
i) “Born-again” Christians (instant) – appeals to emotions
ii) Avoid sins (alcohol, dancing, movies, gambling
b) Pious, devout, intense defense of beliefs
c) Politics
i) Reject social gospel (very conservative), society is seen as unimportant (Jesus awaits)
ii) Populist party
(1) Challenged big business on religious basis (didn’t last)
d) Non-ecumenical – only believe their religion, no tolerance for others (blasphemous)
e) Premillennialists – bible is today’s prophecy (dispensationalists)
i) Believe in rapture, antichrist, Armageddon, etc.
ii) Leaders
(1) Cyrus Scofield – reverend
(a) Scofield Reference Bible – explains why Premillennialism is right (his view)
(b) Dallas
f) Pentecostals – lower/working class, biracial
i) Emphasis on holy spirit (emotional worship)
(1) Speak in tongues
(2) Faith healings
ii) Azusa Street Mission Los Angeles
g) Fundamentalist – northern
i) Believed in signs, faith healing, tongues, and a quick end of the world
ii) Leaders
(1) Dwight Moody – very proper and Victorian
(a) Travels around with a choir and makes hymns famous
(2) Billy Sunday – informal
(3) William Jennings
(a) Stand up for little guy against big business, and social Darwinism
(b) Helped convict Scopes in 1920s
(i) H.L. Menchen – journalist, came to fight Bryan and fundamentalists
1. Scopes is convicted, but fundamentalists are left feeling alienated because of the negative media attention
h) Protestant – 90% in U.S.
i) Not Roman Catholic
(1) Worship service based on English sermons/hymns
ii) Government – “City on a hill” theory
(1) Advocated separation of state from other churches (the wrong ones)
(2) Support imperialist movement in Hawaii , Philippines
iii) John Mott
(1) Led student volunteer movement to recruit members and support a cause
iv) Only men allowed to be leaders, and they must marry first
10) Nonconformist religions
a) Mormons: Latter-day saints
i) Pre CW
(1) Leaders
(a) Joseph Smith (killed for beliefs)
(i) Writes/discovers book of Mormon, which completes the Bible
(b) Brigham Young
(i) Replaces Smith, leads followers West to modern Utah
(ii) Claims polygamy is Christian
ii) Post CW
(1) Morrill Act – declares polygamy illegal
(a) Reynolds v U.S.
(i) Illegal to practice polygamy, not to believe it
(b) Mormon leaders are arrested
(c) Symbolic value of reconstruction Morrill act
(i) North knows best
(ii) One moral code is necessary for a nation
iii) Young dies, new leader ends practice of polygamy
(1) Utah
b) Seventh Day Adventists – founded by Ellen Gould White
i) Declares that all other religions are wrong because they worship on Sunday (not Sat.)
(1) Apocalypse is soon
(a) Good Christians will stop drinking, and eating what God has created (meat)
ii) Move church to Battle Creek , MI
(1) Establish the Sanitarium
(a) John Kellogg is a doctor/believer (later invents corn flakes and quits church)
c) Christian Science – founded by Mary Baker Eddy
i) Since God is a spirit:
(1) He is everywhere at once and inside of us
(2) People are also spirits because we are made in his image
(3) Pain/suffering are spiritual and caused by not being “in tune” with God’s spirit
(a) Re-synching with God (with help of church) can cure you
ii) Membership was mostly middle class professionals and political conservatives
Gender Norms in 19th – early 20th century
1) Traditional concept of “separate spheres”
a) Marriage vows included women “obeying” their husband (societal norm)
b) Fashion
i) Women
(1) Long dresses, fancy hats, girdles, etc., for purpose of modesty
ii) Men
(1) Pants, etc., for practical uses
2) Strengthens in late 19th century
a) Urban/industrial shift
i) Women no longer have regular contact with husband, very little with men in general
b) Evolution and social Darwinism
i) Men are strong/workers and possess valuable inherent traits
ii) Women are weak, need to be taken care of, no values, basically exist to have babies
c) Sexuality
i) Courtship (instead of dating)
(1) Men require a constant chaperone because their sexuality needs to be regulated
(a) Without guidelines it was believed they would rape every woman they see
(2) Led to “romantic marriages” based on choice
(a) After marriage, traditional gender roles (subservient woman and sexually deviant man) were expected to continue
d) Government’s role
i) Comstock Law – named for Anthony Comstock, who proposed the law, and was later hired by the government to enforce it
(1) Outlaws everything “obscene”
(a) Porn, birth control, abortion, etc.
e) Women’s role – only domestic
i) Food, clothes, cleaning, home made medicine
(1) Able to sell extra things (cakes, shirts, etc.)
f) Expanding opportunities
i) Private colleges open in the late 19th century, open only to women (middle class)
(1) Vassar (1861) – 1st women college
ii) Jane Addams – establishes first settlement house
(1) Hull House (not built for living) in Chicago
(a) Community Center that taught English, culture, political activities, etc.
(i) Successful in teaching/advancing people
iii) Florence
(1) Threatened to boycott business if they were abusing women/children
(a) Women were largest consumers
(2) Muller v. Oregon
(a) Muller “forced” a woman to work more than 10 hours in a day, violating a special law which dictated the maximum number of hours women can work
(b) Louis Brandeis is appointed by the NCL to defend Oregon
iv) Temperance/prohibition (emerged Pre CW, but failed)
(1) Post CW
(a) Women’s Christian Temperance Union – led by Frances Willard
(i) Felt they were defending the home
(b) Saloons were a place for whores, liquor, gambling, and fighting
(c) Failed through 19th century
(i) Carry Nation then leads WCTU
1. Walks into saloons (with other WCTU members) and smashes liquor bottles with a hatchet
(d) 1910s mark a turning point
(i) Successful Progressive movement, followed by disgust of WW1, led to the passing of the 18th amendment (prohibition)
g) Suffrage
i) Pre CW
(1) Leaders
(a) Susan B. Anthony
(b) Elizabeth Cody Stanton
(i) Create Women’s Bible
1. Bible with anti-literalist/pro-suffrage annotations
(ii) Movement fails to gain enough support
(c) Carrie Chapman Catt
(i) Progressive movement dictates women be allowed to vote
(d) Annie Howard Shaw
(i) Same beliefs as Catt, but not as vocal
(e) Alice Paul
(i) Militant suffrage – protested White House
ii) 1920 – suffrage passed
(1) Not enforced in the south
(a) South was too conservative and religious
(b) Black women would have been allowed to vote
3) Muscular Christianity – combines sports with religion (only for men)
a) Designed to stop “feminine” traits from entering religion
b) Leaders
i) Billy Sunday
ii) YMCA (newly created)
4) Automobile – popular by the 1910s
a) Enforced gender stereotypes because only men were allowed to drive (superior skill)
b) Mann Act
i) Makes it illegal to drive a woman across state lines (fear of rape)
5) Margaret Sanger
a) Advocated contraceptives (arrested)
Immigration
1) Chronology
a) Pre CW
i) Irish Catholic, German Jew, Chinese
b) Post CW
i) Eastern European Jew, Italian, Greek, Japanese
2) Statue of Liberty (1886)
a) Ellis Island (1892)
i) Center for immigration processing
3) Immigrant Movements
a) Immigrants go all over the world
i) 55% come to U.S.
(1) Some travel West
(2) Some stay in the Eastern big cities (tenements)
(3) None travel South because of the existing cheap labor force
4) Reasons for Immigrating
a) Large working class (no shortage of jobs)
b) Easy to become a citizen
i) Most of Europe is still ruled by monarchies, etc.
(1) No citizen participation
ii) Asians not allowed to become citizens
c) Escape hardship
5) Ethnic Identification – inherent, alterable, called race (implies genetics)
a) Mutual aid organizations
i) Helped one particular race
(1) Saw themselves as different/unique peoples lacking shared characteristics with other groups
b) Immigrants adopted “white” status because of the associated class
Catholic Religious Structure
1) Unity, hierarchy, authority
a) Jesus created the position of Pope
i) Vatican is the holy government
b) Priests
i) Controlled Parish (where you must worship)
(1) Only place to meet women
(2) Duty to support the church
(3) As opposed to Protestants
(a) Worship anywhere, dress informal, reject Pope, etc.
c) Intermediaries
i) Church
(1) Primary source of answers
(a) All other churches are wrong/tell lies
(2) Baltimore catechism
(a) Provides simple answers to life’s tough questions
(b) Easy to memorize/teach to others
ii) The Bible
(1) Should be read by a priest because it is too easy to misinterpret
(a) Encouraged focus on catechisms
(b) Opposite of Protestants (focus on reading)
iii) Mary
(1) Without sin because of God
(a) Opposite of Protestants
(2) Rosary
(a) Enforces theme of mystery and remembrance of Jesus
(3) Sometimes appears to help guide sinners
iv) Saints
v) Angels
2) Interpretation of God
a) He made rules, and is always watching to make sure they are followed
3) Interpretation of Human Nature
a) People are bad
i) Born with original sin
ii) Cause of all misery in the world
(1) Must accept guilt
iii) Only God can grant forgiveness
4) Mass – central themes of mystery, magic, beyond human reason, eternality
a) Not a sermon
i) Said in Latin
ii) Facing alter
iii) Singing/talking not allowed
iv) No faith healings/emphasis on emotion
b) Holy Communion
i) Literal body of Christ
(1) Wafer placed directly on the tongue to avoid human contamination
ii) Confession held on Saturday s (19th century) – very important to proper worship
5) Immigrant/Ethnic Catholicism
a) Ireland ruled by Protestant Britain
i) Immigrated before CW because of potato famine (1845-1855)
(1) 50% female immigrants
(a) Rapidly populated
ii) Dominated church (majority of clergy)
(1) Catholic Irish married other catholic Irish
(a) At least one child is expected to become a priest (honor)
iii) Politics
(1) Since Irish could not vote in Ireland, large majorities participate in America
(a) Quickly gain political power for other Irish
(2) Mostly Democrats
(3) Tammany Hall, NYC
(a) Very powerful machine for Irish Democrats
(4) City jobs (police, firemen, etc.) dominated by Irish
iv) Economy
(1) Mostly working class
(a) Saloons
(i) Not incredibly profitable, but better than industrial work
(2) Wealthy “lace curtain” Irish were members of middle class
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